Circle’s Arc Blockchain: A Game-Changer for USDC—or a New Competitive Fault Line for L1s?
Arc’s Core Proposition Arc is not just another blockchain with USDC support. It is Circle’s effort to vertically integrate its role as issuer, payments network operator, and now base-layer infrastructure provider. Key features from the Q2 announcement include: USDC as native gas, eliminating the need for a separate utility token and tying the chain’s economic model directly to stablecoin usage Integrated stablecoin FX engine for instant, on-chain cross-currency transactions Sub-second settlement finality for capital markets and real-time commerce Opt-in privacy controls for institutional compliance requirements EVM compatibility to enable migration for developers already in the Ethereum ecosystem Full integration with Circle’s existing platform and interoperability with dozens of other blockchains that USDC supports A public testnet is expected this fall.
Until now, Circle’s growth strategy relied on neutral multi-chain support. USDC expanded to networks like Ethereum, Solana, Avalanche, Sui, and Aptos, with the Cross-Chain Transfer Protocol (CCTP) providing mobility between them. With Arc, Circle is signaling that it will no longer rely solely on partner ecosystems. It now has a native execution environment, raising questions such as: Will Arc become the preferred launch venue for new USDC-driven features? Could liquidity incentives draw flows away from partner L1s toward Arc? How will other chains position themselves when the issuer is also a competitor?
Many L1s have invested heavily in native USDC integrations and ecosystem development. Potential liquidity shifts post-Arc: Liquidity gravity tilting toward Arc if it offers lower settlement costs, compliance-friendly privacy, and FX capabilities first, especially for institutional flows. New USDC features debuting on Arc before reaching other chains, creating a first-mover advantage for Arc-native apps. This all puts increased pressure on these L1 chains to differentiate by emphasizing unique technical and market strengths.
Open Questions for the Multi-Chain USDC Future Will Circle maintain equal support for non-Arc L1s, or will Arc become the flagship? How will liquidity incentives be distributed across Arc and other ecosystems? Could Arc’s compliance toolkit become the standard, pushing other chains to adopt similar frameworks?
Bottom Line Arc represents a vertical consolidation play, with
@circle now controlling issuance, compliance infrastructure, payments rails, and an execution layer. For USDC-enabled L1s, this creates both a challenge and an opportunity: the challenge of competing with a chain run by the issuer, and the opportunity to position themselves as complementary execution environments with distinct use cases for USDC. The public testnet this fall will reveal whether Arc becomes a liquidity magnet or simply another venue in USDC’s multi-chain portfolio. Either way, the stablecoin landscape just entered a more complex and strategic phase.
#Circle #Stablecoins #GENIUSACT
Texas’ Path to GENIUS Act Compliance: What State-Chartered Banks Need to Know
Texas already regulates two pillars that matter for GENIUS Act–style stablecoin oversight:
(1) fiat-backed stablecoins under the Money Transmission Modernization Act (MTMA) umbrella and
(2) digital-asset platforms and custodians under Finance Code Chapter 160.
Below is how that framework works today, where it aligns with federal expectations, and the state bodies and processesthat would finish the job.
How Texas currently treats fiat-backed stablecoins
Texas adopted the MTMA framework and went further by expressly bringing fiat-backed stablecoins into state money-transmission law.
If you transmit or custody a fiat-backed, fully reserved, redeemable stablecoin for Texans, you’re in licensed activity.
The Texas Department of Banking (TXDOB) interprets the Finance Code’s definition of “money or monetary value” to include any stablecoin that:
is pegged to a sovereign currency,
is fully backed by reserve assets, and
grants the holder the right to redeem for fiat from the issuer.
Texas Finance Code Chapter 160 — What it requires today
Enacted by HB 1666 in 2023, Chapter 160 adds consumer-protection and transparency obligations for “digital asset service providers” (DASPs) that are already licensed as money transmitters. It focuses on proof-of-reserves, segregation of customer funds, and auditability.
Key requirements:
No commingling — DASPs cannot mix customer funds with company funds or other property.
Holding structures — Customer assets must be held in segregated accounts (individual or omnibus customer-only).
Customer visibility — Quarterly customer access to an accounting of liabilities and assets, with auditor visibility.
Annual proof-of-reserves — CPA-attested reports filed with the TXDOB, verifying all customer liabilities and matching reserves.
Audit standards — Auditors must be U.S. CPAs using AICPA attestation standards.
Alternative audit path — SOX-compliant audits can satisfy certain subsections.
Limited operational float — Minimal provider-owned funds may be co-mingled solely to facilitate transactions, but are deemed “customer funds” by law.
Enforcement — TXDOB may suspend/revoke licenses, conduct exams, and impose penalties.
Rulemaking power — The Finance Commission of Texas can issue rules to clarify and implement Chapter 160.
Where Texas already matches the GENIUS Act
Aligned areas:
Segregation of reserves — Mirrors GENIUS Act requirement for customer-fund separation.
Proof-of-reserves & auditability — Annual CPA-attested reports are a solid base for moving to monthly, public attestations.
Licensing perimeter — Clear inclusion of fiat-backed stablecoins ensures coverage.
Supervisory authority — Strong enforcement, examination, and rulemaking structures already exist.
The big gaps to reach Treasury certification
To qualify for Treasury “substantially similar” certification under the GENIUS Act’s state-chartered pathway (and allow Texas banks to issue under the $10B cap), Texas must:
Move from annual to monthly, public reserve reporting with detailed asset composition.
Codify par-value, on-demand redemption rights for stablecoins, with standardized consumer disclosures.
Restrict reserve assets to high-quality, liquid instruments (cash, insured deposits, short-term Treasuries).
Define who may issue payment stablecoins under state law and limit permissible activities to the stablecoin business line plus closely related services.
Establish customer priority in insolvency for all reserve assets.
Who makes these changes in Texas?
1. Texas Legislature
Passes or amends statutes (e.g., to codify redemption rights, reserve-asset limits, claim priority).
HB 1666 (88th Legislature) is an example of how Chapter 160 was created in the first place.
2. Finance Commission of Texas — The Rulemakers
Legal Authority: Chapter 160, Sec. 160.006
“The Finance Commission may adopt rules to administer and enforce this chapter, including rules necessary and appropriate to implement and clarify this chapter.”
Composition:
11 members, all private citizens, appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate.
Required seats:
2 state bank executives
1 state savings executive
1 consumer credit executive
1 residential mortgage loan originator
6 public members (one must be a CPA)
Members serve staggered 6-year terms.
Function in this context:
Draft and adopt technical rules — e.g., increasing reserve-reporting frequency, defining asset eligibility, standardizing disclosures.
Act on recommendations from TXDOB.
3. Texas Department of Banking (TXDOB)
Day-to-day administration and enforcement of Chapter 160.
Banking Commissioner can waive specific requirements when consistent with the law.
Works with the Finance Commission to develop proposed rules.
Bottom line for Texas-chartered banks
Texas already has the licensing perimeter, reserve segregation, and auditability pieces in place.
What’s missing are GENIUS Act–grade redemption rights, reserve eligibility rules, and monthly public reporting.
The Legislature will set the statutory foundation.
The Finance Commission will fill in the technical rulebook.
The Department of Banking will supervise implementation.
Once those changes are made and Texas earns Treasury certification, state-chartered Texas banks could issue GENIUS-compliant stablecoins under the $10B cap — without needing an OCC charter.
Paxos Files New OCC Bank Charter Application — A First Step Toward GENIUS Act Stablecoin Issuance
Paxos Trust Company has officially filed a new application with the U.S. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) to obtain a federal bank charter, signaling its ambition to become one of the first fully GENIUS Act-compliant stablecoin issuers. This filing marks Paxos’ return to the OCC process after its earlier 2020 national trust bank application, which received conditional approval but later expired in 2023.
The application comes amid a wave of similar moves from major players in the digital asset space. Just last month, stablecoin firm Circle (CRCL.N) and crypto firm Ripple also submitted applications for national trust bank charters, reflecting an industry-wide push to align with the new regulatory landscape established by the Guiding and Establishing National Innovation for U.S. Stablecoins Act of 2025 (GENIUS Act).
The two-step process for GENIUS Act stablecoin launch
Under the GENIUS Act, issuing a compliant USD-pegged stablecoin involves two distinct regulatory approvals:
Step 1 — Obtain a bank charter from the OCC
The first requirement is to secure a federal charter, most commonly a National Trust Bank Charter from the OCC for non-deposit-taking stablecoin issuers.
What it is: A legal status that transforms the issuer into a federally regulated financial institution with the authority to hold reserves, redeem stablecoins, and operate under OCC supervision.
Why it matters: Without this charter, an entity cannot qualify as a “Permitted Payment Stablecoin Issuer” under the GENIUS Act. The charter also preempts the need for dozens of separate state money transmitter licenses, enabling nationwide issuance under a single supervisory framework.
What the OCC looks for: A detailed business plan, robust governance, experienced management, clear compliance and risk frameworks, secure technical infrastructure, and capital adequacy to meet operational demands. The OCC reviews these against safety and soundness standards, much like a traditional bank.
Step 2 — Apply for GENIUS Act stablecoin issuer approval
Once the charter is granted, the issuer must separately (or concurrently) obtain GENIUS Act approval from its primary regulator, in Paxos’ case, the OCC.
What it is: A specialized license confirming that the issuer meets all GENIUS Act mandates, including strict reserve composition, monthly public attestations, redemption rights at par, and robust consumer protection disclosures.
Why it matters: This step legally designates the institution as a Federal Qualified Payment Stablecoin Issuer, allowing it to launch its stablecoin into the U.S. market without being regulated as a security or commodity.
Integrated process: In practice, many applicants, including Paxos, are expected to integrate GENIUS Act requirements into their charter application so both approvals can be coordinated.
Why the bank charter is the critical first step
The bank charter is the regulatory anchor for GENIUS Act compliance. It:
Confers federal legitimacy — OCC-chartered issuers are supervised under the National Bank Act and must adhere to ongoing prudential standards.
Authorizes core activities — Issuing and redeeming stablecoins, holding reserves, and providing custody are recognized as permissible trust banking activities under the Act.
Establishes consumer protections — OCC oversight enforces the GENIUS Act’s protections, such as bankruptcy-remote reserves, no-interest mandates, and transparent redemption processes.
Streamlines national operations — A federal charter removes the operational friction of 50-state licensing and aligns the issuer with one primary regulator.
Without this foundational approval, the GENIUS Act’s second step — stablecoin issuer licensing — is legally inaccessible.
Implications of Paxos’ filing
Paxos’ new OCC application positions it at the forefront of the GENIUS Act era. If approved, Paxos would have the authority to:
Launch a GENIUS-compliant USD stablecoin with national reach.
Compete directly with both existing bank-issued stablecoins and fintech entrants pursuing the same two-step approval path.
Offer institutional and retail clients the assurance of OCC oversight and statutory redemption rights.
With Circle and Ripple also pursuing national trust bank charters, the OCC now faces a queue of high-profile applicants vying to be among the first federally chartered stablecoin issuers under the GENIUS Act. This convergence of filings underscores a reality that every serious U.S. stablecoin issuer must now face: the path to market runs through the OCC, and the GENIUS Act makes that path non-negotiable.
Now Is the Time for States to Formulate a GENIUS Act–Compliant Charter
The GENIUS Act of 2025 established the first comprehensive federal framework for U.S. payment stablecoins. It set strict requirements—1:1 reserve backing, monthly independent audits, prompt redemption rights, and bank-level supervision—while preserving the “dual banking system” that allows state innovation under federal guardrails.
This presents a rare window of opportunity: states can act now to create their own qualified stablecoin issuer chartersthat fully comply with GENIUS, ensuring local control over a rapidly growing sector while protecting consumers.
How GENIUS Act Stablecoin Advisor Can Help: Why Act Now?
Federal Clarity – The GENIUS Act removed ambiguity over stablecoin legality and set clear operational standards. States no longer need to guess where federal lines will be drawn.
First-Mover Advantage – Just as early adopters of trust company or SPDI charters gained national visibility, the first states with a GENIUS-aligned charter will attract top fintechs, blockchain companies, and even public-private initiatives.
Economic Development – A well-structured state charter invites high-value financial institutions to domicile locally, bringing jobs, tax revenue, and technological leadership.
How GENIUS Act Stablecoin Consultant Can Help: What a State Charter Should Include?
The Texas Digital Payment Reserve Bank (TDPRB) framework is a blueprint that other states can adapt:
Charter Class for Stablecoin Issuers – A non-lending, fully reserved, state-supervised institution.
Strict Reserve Requirements – 100% USD or high-quality liquid assets, segregated and unencumbered.
Prompt Redemption – Mandated 1:1 redemption within 24–48 hours.
Transparency – Monthly CPA-verified reserve attestations, annual audits, and public reporting.
Consumer Protections – Clear disclosures, priority claims on reserves, and prohibition of misleading “insured” claims.
The Risk of Waiting - Contact a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Consultant Today to Discuss A a plan for launching your stablecoin charter or compliant stablecoin
Without a state-level GENIUS-compliant charter, local oversight defaults to federal licensing or out-of-state regimes. That means fewer homegrown institutions, less influence over regulatory shaping, and missed opportunities for integrating stablecoins into state payments, benefits disbursements, and public-private innovation.
Bottom Line: The GENIUS Act has set the table. States that move now to create compliant charters will control their own stablecoin destiny—balancing innovation, consumer protection, and economic growth. Those that delay will be left adopting someone else’s framework.
#stablecoins #GENIUSAct
The Two-Step Path to Launching a GENIUS Act–Compliant Stablecoin
Launching a regulatory-compliant stablecoin under the GENIUS Act is a complex process that involves two separate but interlinked approvals:
Obtaining a National Trust Bank Charter from the OCC
Securing approval as a Permitted Payment Stablecoin Issuer under the GENIUS Act
This sequence ensures that your entity is both a federally supervised bank and a legally recognized stablecoin issuer under the new framework.
Step 1 — Obtaining an OCC National Trust Bank Charter and How a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Consultant Can Assist
The Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) charter is the foundation of your regulatory standing. For a de novo stablecoin issuer, this will typically be an uninsured national trust bank charter, which authorizes fiduciary and custodial activities, including holding reserves and issuing payment stablecoins.
Pre-Filing Engagement and How a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Consultant Can Assist
Early contact with the OCC—through its Office of Innovation or Licensing Division—is essential. In this “pre-filing meeting,” you will outline your business concept, demonstrate alignment with GENIUS Act requirements and OCC safety and soundness principles, and receive feedback on potential red flags. Early buy-in from OCC staff can significantly smooth the path forward.
Charter Application Package - How a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Consultant Can Advise Your Charter
Your formal submission, via the Interagency Charter Application form tailored for an uninsured trust bank, must include:
Three-year business plan with detailed projections, product descriptions, target markets, growth assumptions, and risk mitigations.
Capital plan covering the amount, form, investor commitments, and adequacy under stress scenarios.
Management and governance documentation, including resumes, background checks, organizational chart, and governance framework.
Risk and compliance frameworks such as AML/BSA, cybersecurity, operational risk policies, and board oversight structures.
Analysis showing permissible activities under the National Bank Act and GENIUS Act.
Narrative on public benefit and financial inclusion objectives.
Statement of commitment to supervision, reporting, and examination requirements.
Review and Conditional Approval - How a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Consultant Can Help With Regulatory Compliance
The OCC will evaluate the application against statutory factors and may issue conditional approval requiring pre-opening actions such as raising capital, hiring key executives, adopting OCC-approved policies, and entering a supervisory agreement.
Pre-Opening Examination
OCC examiners will review operational readiness, staffing, systems, and compliance programs before granting final charter approval.
Step 2 — Approval as a Permitted Payment Stablecoin Issuer (GENIUS Act)
Even with a bank charter, you must separately obtain approval as a Federal Qualified Payment Stablecoin Issuer under the GENIUS Act. This confirms that your stablecoin meets statutory reserve, redemption, and consumer protection standards.
Consult a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Advisor to Assist with the Application Components -
Whether filed separately or with the charter application, the submission must cover:
Reserve management showing 1:1 eligible asset backing, daily valuation, segregation of assets, and issuance controls.
Redemption policy and terms of service committing to timely par redemption, retail redemption pathways, plain-language disclosures, and insolvency priority for holders.
Compliance with statutory consumer protections, including no interest, no false government backing claims, and clear risk disclosures.
AML/BSA and risk management programs aligned with Act requirements, including sanctions screening and cybersecurity standards.
Leadership with both banking and payments/crypto expertise, supplemented by advisors if needed.
Contingency and wind-down plan ensuring orderly redemption and reserve liquidation.
Consult a GENIUS Act Stablecoin Advisor for Regulatory Coordination
The OCC will lead the review but may coordinate with Treasury and the interagency Stablecoin Oversight Committee. Approval may include operational conditions such as issuance limits or enhanced early-stage reporting.
Step 3 — Documentation, Testing, and Launch Readiness
Before launch, finalize:
CPA audits or attestations verifying capitalization and systems, with a schedule for monthly reserve attestations.
Board-approved policies for AML, cybersecurity, operational risk, and redemption procedures.
Evidence of system testing, including smart contract audits, penetration tests, and stress simulations.
Governance records of board decisions and approvals.
Execution of all regulatory agreements and satisfaction of OCC conditions.
Only after both charter approval and GENIUS Act issuer approval can you begin issuing your stablecoin under federal law.
Why the Two-Step Model Matters
This dual-approval model provides layered oversight. The OCC charter ensures the entity is a regulated bank-like institution, while GENIUS Act issuer approval ensures the stablecoin product itself meets strict operational and consumer protection requirements. Together, they create a structure that builds trust with regulators, market participants, and end-users.
Tokenized Bank Deposits Coins Are Not GENIUS Act Compliant Stablecoins—Here’s Why
As digital finance matures, not all “digital dollars” are created equal. Case in point: JPMorgan’s new deposit token (JPMD) and the regulated stablecoins emerging under the GENIUS Act may look similar on the surface—but they are fundamentally different in structure, purpose, and legal treatment. Understanding this distinction is critical for fintech operators, especially those navigating the future of payments, compliance, and digital asset innovation.
1. Who Can Issue It
JPMD is issued by a regulated bank—JPMorgan Chase. It’s a tokenized form of a traditional bank deposit, and only a licensed bank can issue it. On the other hand, the GENIUS Act was designed to create a new framework for non-bank entities—fintechs, state-chartered institutions, and other approved issuers—to launch compliant, fully reserved stablecoins. The law also allows banks to participate, but only through separately regulated subsidiaries or under a special license. This opens the door for a broader range of players to enter the stablecoin market under clearly defined rules.
2. How It's Backed
The JPMD deposit token is backed by deposits held at JPMorgan—just like any other checking or savings account. These deposits are part of a fractional reserve system, meaning the bank may lend or invest a portion of them. Even if JPMorgan maintains strong reserves, the backing ultimately rests on the bank’s balance sheet and creditworthiness.
In contrast, a GENIUS-compliant stablecoin must be fully backed 1:1 by segregated, high-quality liquid assets such as cash or U.S. Treasury bills, held in custody for the benefit of token holders. These assets must remain separate from the issuer’s operating capital and cannot be lent out. The value of the stablecoin is tied directly to the quality and transparency of its underlying reserves, not the financial health of the issuer.
3. Legal Status and Protections
Legally, JPMD is a bank deposit in tokenized form. It’s treated just like any other liability on the bank’s books and may be eligible for deposit insurance. Users holding JPMD are essentially depositors, with all the rights and protections that status confers under traditional banking laws.
GENIUS Act stablecoins, however, are defined as a new class of digital payment instruments. They are not considered deposits and therefore do not carry FDIC insurance. Instead, they offer other protections: reserve asset segregation, strict redemption rights, and regulatory clarity. GENIUS issuers are also prohibited from paying interest on stablecoin balances, distinguishing these tokens from bank deposits or money market instruments.
4. Regulatory Oversight
JPMD lives entirely within the traditional banking system and is overseen by existing bank regulators. Its issuance, custody, and redemption all operate under longstanding rules governing banks and their customers.
Stablecoins under the GENIUS Act fall into a new regulatory category. Issuers must obtain a federal or state stablecoin license and comply with strict operational, risk management, and transparency requirements. These include reserve disclosures, audits, and the technical ability to freeze assets in response to law enforcement requests. In short, GENIUS creates a parallel regulatory track specifically tailored to the unique risks and use cases of stablecoins.
Why It Matters
Both JPMD and GENIUS Act stablecoins aim to move dollars onto blockchain rails, but the similarities stop there. JPMD is a digital extension of the traditional deposit system, optimized for institutional use and backed by a single bank. GENIUS Act stablecoins are designed as a public-regulated alternative to bank money, open to both private-sector innovators and state entities looking to issue digital dollars within a clear legal framework.
As the market for tokenized dollars grows, it’s important to recognize that not all “bank coins” are true stablecoins under U.S. law. For fintech builders and policy architects, understanding this line isn't just semantic — it's foundational to shaping what comes next.
The Evolution of Stablecoins: From Early Innovations to the GENIUS Act Era
Introduction
Stablecoins are a class of cryptocurrencies designed to maintain a stable value by pegging to an external reference—typically a fiat currency like the U.S. dollar. They aim to combine the efficiency, programmability, and decentralization of digital assets with the stability and trust associated with traditional money.
In the volatile world of crypto, where the price of Bitcoin or Ether can swing dramatically within hours, stablecoins serve as a reliable medium of exchange and store of value. Over the past decade, they have evolved from niche blockchain experiments to systemically important financial instruments. Today, they facilitate billions of dollars in daily trading volume, power decentralized finance (DeFi) platforms, enable cross-border payments, and provide a digital alternative to cash in inflation-stricken economies.
This paper traces the historical and technical evolution of stablecoins from their early designs in 2014 to their current mainstream adoption, culminating in the passage of the Guiding and Establishing National Innovation for U.S. Stablecoins (GENIUS) Act in 2025. It also explores global regulatory responses and highlights the innovations, risks, and opportunities associated with digital dollars.
I. Early Stablecoin Innovations (2014–2016)
BitUSD: The First Stablecoin (2014)
The first functioning stablecoin was BitUSD, launched on July 21, 2014, on the BitShares blockchain. It was envisioned by Dan Larimer and Charles Hoskinson, both of whom later played major roles in developing EOS and Cardano.
BitUSD used the BitShares token (BTS) as collateral. Users could lock BTS in smart contracts to mint BitUSD, with the goal of maintaining a 1:1 peg to the U.S. dollar. The system relied on arbitrage and market confidence to maintain its value. However, by 2018, due to the volatility of BTS and a lack of sustained demand, BitUSD lost its peg and never recovered.
NuBits (USNBT): Another Early Attempt
NuBits launched in 2014 as another early stablecoin. Though it claimed to be backed by reserves, it lacked clear and diversified collateral mechanisms. As crypto markets declined, confidence eroded, and NuBits lost its dollar peg, eventually trading at just a fraction of its intended value. Its collapse, like BitUSD's, underscored the weaknesses in relying on unstable assets for price stability.
Tether (USDT): The Fiat-Backed Model
Also in 2014, RealCoin was introduced, later rebranded as Tether (USDT). Unlike earlier models, Tether took a fiat-backed approach: every USDT token would be backed 1:1 by U.S. dollar reserves held by the issuer.
Launched on the Omni Layer protocol on the Bitcoin blockchain, Tether was quickly adopted by exchanges due to its simplicity and usability. It became the leading stablecoin by market cap and volume. This centralized model set the foundation for future fiat-backed digital dollar systems.
II. Stablecoin Expansion and the Rise of Digital Dollars (2017–2020)
MakerDAO and the Introduction of DAI (2017)
In December 2017, MakerDAO launched DAI, a decentralized stablecoin on Ethereum. Unlike fiat-backed coins, DAI was over-collateralized using crypto assets like Ether. To mint DAI, users deposited ETH into smart contracts called vaults, with a required collateralization ratio of at least 150 percent.
This design helped manage volatility: if the value of the collateral dropped below safety thresholds, the system would automatically liquidate assets to maintain stability. DAI later added new collateral types, such as wrapped Bitcoin (WBTC) and USDC. It became a key component of the DeFi ecosystem and proved that a decentralized stablecoin could sustain its peg under stress.
Fiat-Backed Stablecoins Gain Ground (2018–2019)
Following Tether’s dominance, new fiat-backed stablecoins emerged, emphasizing transparency and regulation:
USD Coin (USDC), launched in September 2018 by Circle and Coinbase, provided monthly attestation reports and operated under U.S. regulatory frameworks.
TrueUSD (TUSD), released by TrustToken, used escrow accounts and third-party verification.
Paxos Standard (PAX), later rebranded as USDP, was regulated by the New York Department of Financial Services.
These issuers focused on compliance, liquidity, and transparency, creating trust with users and institutional partners. By the end of 2020, USDC had become the second-largest stablecoin behind USDT.
Libra: A Regulatory Turning Point
In 2019, Facebook proposed Libra, a global stablecoin backed by a basket of fiat currencies and governed by the Libra Association. The goal was to facilitate frictionless global payments through Facebook’s apps.
Governments and central banks swiftly opposed the plan, raising concerns over monetary sovereignty, privacy, and financial stability. Libra was eventually restructured, rebranded as Diem, and ultimately shut down in 2022.
However, Libra’s short life had lasting consequences: it catalyzed stablecoin regulation worldwide and accelerated central banks’ exploration of digital currencies.
III. Market Maturity and the Case for Regulation
Explosive Growth in the Early 2020s
By early 2019, the total stablecoin market capitalization was around $5 billion. By the end of 2020, it had reached $28 billion, and by early 2024, surpassed $150 billion.
The drivers of this growth included:
Use in crypto trading pairs (e.g., BTC/USDT)
Liquidity provision in DeFi protocols
Use as remittance and savings tools in developing markets
Demand for digital dollars during times of fiat instability
Stablecoins were now embedded in the financial architecture of both centralized and decentralized markets.
Emerging Risks and Red Flags
Despite their growing utility, stablecoins introduced new risks:
Tether faced repeated scrutiny for inadequate reserve transparency. It reached a settlement with the New York Attorney General in 2021, agreeing to improve disclosures.
TerraUSD (UST), an algorithmic stablecoin, collapsed in May 2022, wiping out over $40 billion in market value and triggering industry-wide contagion.
In March 2023, USDC temporarily depegged to $0.88 after Silicon Valley Bank, one of its reserve banks, collapsed. USDC later recovered, but the episode highlighted exposure to the banking system.
These incidents signaled the need for structured, enforceable regulation to ensure consumer protection and financial stability.
IV. The GENIUS Act and the Future of Regulated Stablecoins
Legislative Journey (2022–2025)
Between 2022 and 2025, U.S. lawmakers debated several versions of federal stablecoin legislation. With growing pressure from industry leaders, international regulators, and central banks, Congress passed the GENIUS Act in July 2025. It became the first comprehensive federal law governing payment stablecoins in the United States.
Key Provisions of the GENIUS Act
Licensing: Issuers must obtain a license from the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) or operate under a state regime approved as substantially equivalent. Issuers with more than $10 billion in circulation must be federally licensed.
Reserves: All stablecoins must be backed 1:1 by high-quality liquid assets (such as cash and U.S. Treasuries).
Redemption: Holders must be able to redeem tokens for dollars at par value, with clear terms and timelines.
Segregated Accounts: Stablecoin reserves must be held in bankruptcy-remote accounts, protecting customers if the issuer fails.
Transparency: Issuers are required to publish monthly reserve reports and submit to independent audits if above certain thresholds.
Enforcement: U.S. regulators are authorized to restrict offshore stablecoins that pose systemic risks or fail to comply with standards.
Big Tech Guardrails: Large non-financial companies (e.g., social media firms) cannot issue stablecoins without approval from a federal review committee.
This regulatory framework offers a balance between fostering innovation and protecting the public, giving banks, fintechs, and crypto firms a clear path to issue compliant digital dollars.
Conclusion
Stablecoins have come a long way since the early days of BitUSD and NuBits. What began as experiments in collateral and code are now instruments used daily by millions of people and institutions around the world.
The GENIUS Act represents a shift in how the United States approaches financial innovation: no longer ignoring or resisting digital assets, but integrating them into a supervised, rules-based financial system. As adoption grows and the technology matures, stablecoins are likely to become a foundational layer of both crypto and traditional finance.
The next decade will likely see stablecoins used not just for crypto trading, but for payroll, remittances, commerce, and even cross-border settlement—bringing the vision of frictionless digital dollars closer to reality.